Human Physiology Exam Study Guide Final Exam: CHECK YOUR SYLLABUS FOR TIME AND DATE!
	Dr. David Ferris - Division of Natural Sciences & Engineering - USC Upstate

For the final exam, concentrate on your notes, but use the book to fill in gaps and to clarify the concepts. Make SURE you look, read, and can describe what is happening in the chapters. If you can explain the concepts to other students in detail (and correctly), it is a good indication that you understand the material. While this is NOT a listing of everything on the exam, you should at minimum be familiar with the following concepts: Homeostasis Physiology (define) Feedback (positive and negative) Biological molecules (importance and identification) sugars (mono, di, polysaccharides) fats (saturated, unsaturated) proteins phospholipids functional groups pH Chemical reactions and bonds (covalent, ionic, hydrogen) Cell structure Cell membrane Organelles & major functions of each Nucleus DNA Composition (structure) Nucleic acids & base pairs RNA synthesis Transcription & translation of DNA into proteins  DNA replication  Cell replication  Stages and major events  Differences and similarities in Mitosis and Meiosis  Enzymes What is an enzyme Why are they important = Catalyst Cell respiration What is it and why is it important four "phases" glycolysis acetyl Co-A Krebs/citric acid cycle Electron transport system Summary of events in each phase Outcomes of each phase (hydrogens, ATP's, etc) Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration Membrane transport (not covered heavily in class, but IMPORTANT!) Diffusion osmosis gradients facilitated transport active transport Nerves and nerve firing Neuron anatomy what is a neuron Schwann cells myelin Node of Ranvier gap junction (electrical synapse) synapse synaptic cleft (chemical synapse) what are neuroglial cells? Know what happens in neuron firing (depolarization of the membrane) Nerve "firing" (graph) action potential resting potential threshold potential hyperpolarization sodium-potassium pump ion concentrations and movement (when and where) Saltatory conduction Neurotransmitters What are they why are they importent how do nerve impulses travel from one neuron to another acetylcholine (Ach) acetylcholinesterase (AchE) IPSP EPSP   Endocrine System Endocrine organs & function Hormones,  target tissues and impacts Feedback loops Homeostasis regulation Circumventricular organs   Renal System Gross anatomy How the glomerulus works The functions of each portion of the nephron hormonal controls related to renal activity ADH Aldosterone Why the kindey is so involved in BP regulation reabsorption secretion excretion salt retention by renal medulla (why important) why is the loop of Henle important? Reproductive System Anatomy of male and female systems Hormonal control of male system  Sperm production Role of seminal components (what does each "accessory" gland contribute and why is it necessary) Hormonal control of female system Fertility (menstrual) cycle in females - what happens when and why to: uterine lining (endometrium) ovaries hormone levels and impacts Contraceptive methods & why they work (or not) Fertilization and implantation Birth Lactation Hormonal control of reproductive functions for males and females is VERY important for this entire section Fetal physiology Developmental physiology  Respiratory Physiology General Structure of the respiratory system (pg 482) Physical properties of the lungs (pg 487) Breathing mechanisms (pg 490) Gas exchange in lungs (pg 496) What does "partial pressure" indicate physiologically Significance of PO2 and PCO2 Brain respiratory centers and triggers for the respiratory cycle Impact of CO2 on blod flow in lungs Be able to diagram the alveoli and capillary structures where gas exchange occurs Oxygen and CO2 loading and unloading Hemoglobin structure and function (pg 507) Oxygen dissociation curve Effects of exercise/pH on the dissociation curve and why (pg 509) Heart & Circulation Be able to diagram the anatomy of the heart Discuss/diagram the heart's conduction system systole Diastole Pressure differences in blood vessels Functional and anatomical differences in arteries, veins, capillaries ECG waves, their significance The systemic and pulmonary circuits Cardiac Output, blood flow, blood pressure What factors impact cardiac output? How is it monitored by the body How does your body regulate BP Systolic pressure Diastolic pressure How does blood flow change when the Parasympathetic or sympathetic nervous system is stimulated What are the components of blood Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system What roles do the kidneys play in blood pressure regulation? ADH Blood osmolality (general concept of, why is it important) Dehydration and the body response Example question for this material- Discuss the effect that exercise has on heart rate (while you are exercising) and why it changes. Why do individuals who exercise regularly have lower heart rates than "couch potatoes" (be specific) Immune system Nonspecific immunity (pg 448) Inflammation and what causes it Specific immunity Functions of the helper T cells (T4) Lymphocytes B lymphocytes Antibodies Complement system (READ CAREFULLY, this was not covered in the a.m. lectures, but is important) T Lymphocytes Killer, helper, suppresor, memory cells and their roles Role of the thymus Active and passive immunity Example question for this material- What are allergies? Explain them in detail, describing the immune response and associated mechanisms that make allergies so annoying. MUSCULATURE Anatomy of muscle Includes the different tissue types and locations "bands" in skeletal muscle Structure of the myofibril and sarcomeres Physiology Function of the neuromuscular (myoneural) junction Function of Sarcolemma, Sarcoplasmic reticulum (t-tubules), troponin-tropomyosin, Calcium, ATP, etc. Process of skeletal muscle contraction - how does everything work together? Differences in smooth, skeletal, and cardiac tissue Example question for this material- diagram the anatomy of a sarcomere, then list or discuss (in order) the events that occur when a sarcomere contracts. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Major endocrine organs, their products and their Hormones secreted by major organs, their target tissues and their function Know the hormonal pathways (be able to diagram and explain the sequence of events during hormone secretion and feedback) What is a hormone? Role of hormones in the body SPECIAL SENSES Anatomy and function of: Eye Ear (all parts) Nose Tongue (taste receptors) Proprioceptors  BRAIN & NERVOUS SYSTEM  Anatomy and physiology of the brain, including function of major areas Lateralization of the brain (right & left brain) Cerebral hemispheres (including major functional areas) Diencephalon Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Pineal body (gland) Brain Stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Meningeal layers and their function CSF Blood-brain barrier Cranial nerves Spinal cord Anatomy White matter Gray matter Reflex arcs General arrangement/organization of the nervous system CNS, PNS Relationship between autonomic, somatic, sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions Functional role of the sympathetic nervous system Functional role of the parasympathetic nervous system   Digestive System Basic anatomy (always necessary for understanding physiology) Digestive juices/enzymes: what they are (name them) what they do where they are produced (organs, cells) where they are found Function of all major digestive organs and accessory digestive organs Hormonal control of digestive activity Cephalic and gastric control (what's going on in each phase and why) Digestion of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins Structure and function of small intestine movement of food through digestive tract role of chemical and mechanical digestive processes in digestion